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Date: Fri, 11 Oct 1996 12:03:02 +0100 From: S.D.N.Graham@ncl.ac.uk (Stephen Graham) Subject: Telecoms and the City

Telecommunications and The City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Places

Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin

=46eb 1996 234mmx156mm 456 pages Routledge, London and New York Paperback ISBN 0 415 11903 0 =A315.99 Hardback ISBN 0-415 11902 2 =A350.00

Credit card hotline UK 01264 342923 International (+44) 1264 342923

Telecommunications and the City provides the first critical and state-of-the-art review of the relations between telecommunications and all aspects of city development and management. The book provides a bench mark text in the burgeoning debates about technological change and the future of cities. Drawing on a range of theoretical approaches and a wide body of recent research, the book straddles disciplinary and national boundaries and addresses key academic and policy debates with a fresh perspective. Telecommunications and the City maps out the complex and crucial transformations underway in cities in which telecommunications have central importance. Key areas where telecommunications impinge on the economic, social, physical, environmental and institutional development of cities are illustrated by using boxed extracts and wide range of case study examples from Europe, Japan and North America.

Early Reviews of "telecommunications and the City"

"This book is a tour de force. The authors show by example that electronics has not made clear thinking obsolete or unnecessary. If you want an idea of what may be going on with current technology in cities, this is the book to buy and read. Graham and Marvin's forte is thinking their way through the morass of [technological change in cities]. The authors' cool, calm and collected approach to this much-hyped transformation is exemplary"

review in 'Planning' (Monthly magazine of the American Planning Association= )

"A splendid book which will become mandatory reading on my courses at Berkeley. I am sure it is going to be a classic"

Manuel Castells Professor of City & Regional Planning Sociology, University of Berkeley, California

"This pathbreaking book takes us on a tour of the virtual city which is opening up before us - a marvellous synthesis and a clear vision of what cities have become and where they are headed in the twenty-first century. Read this book'

Michael Batty, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London.

"the only book about the spatial dimension to the information society written by urbanists who possess a thorough understanding of the closed world of telecommunications... The book will open up the field of urban development to social scientists, urban policy makers and town planners seeking to come to grips with the implications of the changes unleashed by advances in telecommunications"

John Goddard, Honorary Director, Centre for Urban and Regional Development Studies, University of Newcastle.

"Any geographer seriously interested in the future of urban settlement in the US or across the world will gain much from a careful reading of this book, as I did. I am pleased to recommend the book enthusiastically. With this book we have an informed chapter-by-chapter exposition of telematics and the city. Writing is crisp, clear and engaging. Editing is careful ; layout and illustrations are helpful.

John Adams, Review in 'Professional Geographer'

"Here, for the first time, is a book which provides an initial map of the current technological transformation of cities. Graham and Marvin have attempted to map the emerging paradigm of the cybercity onto what we know from many domains of urban theory, from architecture to social science. They have performed a Herculean task simply in attempting this and they should be congratulated for putting together a survey of much of the material that must eventually be fashioned into a new theory of the contemporary city. This is a very brave attempt at synthesising incredibly complex phenomena and they impose an order and intelligence on the material that will stimulate those who read it to increase our understanding further. This is a book worth absorbing by all who have an interest in what our cities will look like in the second half of the 21st century"

'Review in 'Habitat' Magazine

"A textbook on the impacts of telecommunications on the urban environment is a rare and welcome find. Academics and planners should take note of "Telecommunications and the City" and the extensive research that went into it. Graham and Marvin cover a lot of teraain in discussing the manifold issues of urban transformation generated by what many have ordained the "third industrial revolution". "Telecommunicatsions and the City" is an important contribution to the field of urban studies and planning. It is excellent value as a text book for teachers and students of urban studies and planning, sociology, communicatiosn and related areas of study and those attempting to decipher the political and social dimensions of "information age" technology"

Gerald Sussman, review for "Urban Studies"

Contents of Telecommunications and the City

Chapter 1 Introduction - Telecommunications And The City: Parallel Transformations Telecommunications and Urban Transformations The Urban 'impacts' of Telecommunications The Neglect Of Telecommunications in Urban Studies The Need for More Sophisticated Approaches to City-Telecommunications Relati= ons The Transformation Of Telecommunications : From the 'Plain Old Telephone Service' (POTS) to Telematics The Transformation Of Cities : Towards Planetary Urban Networks The Structure of the Book

Chapter 2 Telecommunications as A Paradigm Challenge for Urban Studies and Policy Introduction Telecommunications as A Paradigm Challenge Ways Forward: Post Modernism, Electronic Spaces and The Tele-Mediated City Towards New Conceptions of the City Conclusions

Chapter 3 Approaching Telecommunications and the City : Competing Perspecti= ves Introduction Technological Determinism =46uturism and Utopianism Dystopianism and Political Economy The Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) Approach A Critical Evaluation Conclusions :Towards an Integrated Approach to Cities and Telecommunication= s

Chapter 4 Urban Economies Introduction Urban Economies as The Information-Switching Centres of the Global Economy The Metropolitan Dominance of Telecommunications Investment and Use Cities as Nodes on Corporate Telematics Networks Telematics and Urban Concentration: The Global Command Centres Telematics and Urban Decentralisation: Tele-Mediated Producer and Consumer Services Teleshopping : The Prospect For Tele-Mediated Retailing Manufacturing, Innovation and New Industrial Spaces Conclusions: An Electronic Requiem for Urban Economies ?

Chapter 5: The Social And Cultural Life Of The City Introduction Post Modernism and Urban Social Landscapes Social Equity and Polarisation The Home as a Locus Of Urban Social Life Social Surveillance and the City Cyberspace and the City : Virtual Urban Communities and Social Interaction Conclusions

Chapter 6: Urban Environments Introduction Towards the Dematerialisation Of Cities? Complementary Physical and Electronic Interactions Electronic Monitoring of the Urban Environment Conclusions: Blurring Boundaries Between Physical & Electronic Cities

Chapter 7: Urban Infrastructure And Transportation Introduction Urban Infrastructure Networks and Telecommunications The New Urban Infrastructure Crisis Telematics and the Urban Control Revolution Towards the Intelligent City? Conclusion: Cities Shaping Infrastructure Networks

Chapter 8: Urban Physical Form Introduction The Development of the City and the Telephone Telecommunications and the Contemporary City Mapping City-Telecommunications Relations Conclusions - What Future for the City ?

Chapter 9: Urban Planning, Policy And Governance Introduction: City Policy Makers as 'Social Shapers' of Telematics Telematics Policies for Urban Development and Planning Telematics and Urban Governance Conclusions: Telematics and New Visions for Urban Policy and Governance

Chapter 10 : Conclusions - Telecommunications And Urban Futures Introduction A New Type of Urban World, Not a Post-Urban World... The City as an Amalgam of Urban Places and Electronic Spaces Overcoming the Myths of Determinism: Contingency With Bias Telecommunications and Urban Futures

Guide To Further Reading Bibliography Index

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION - TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND THE CITY: PARALLEL TRANSFORMATIONS TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND URBAN TRANSFORMATIONS

A rapid transformation is currently overtaking advanced industrial cities. As we approach the verge of a new millennium, old ideas and assumptions about the development, planning and management of the modern, industrial city seem less and less useful. Accepted notions about the nature of space, time, distance and the processes of urban life are similarly under question. The boundaries separating what is 'private' and what is 'public' within cities are shifting fast. Urban life seems more volatile and speeded-up, more uncertain, more fragmented and more bewildering than at any time since the end of the last century.

Apparently central to this transformation, according to nearly all commentators, are remarkable leaps in the capability and significance of telecommunications. Much of contemporary urban change seems to involve, at last in part, the application of new telecommunications infrastructures and services to transcend spatial barriers instantaneously. Telecommunications - literally communications from afar -fundamentally adjust space and time barriers - the basic dimensions of human life (Abler, 1977). They connect widely-separated points and places together with very little delay - that is, in ways that approach 'real time'. As telecommunications themselves become 'digital' and based on microelectronics, they are merging with digital computer and media technologies. These are diffusing into a growing proportion of homes, institutions and workplaces. The result of this merging is a process of 'technological convergence' and a wide and fast-growing range of so-called 'telematics' networks and services. Following the French word t=E9l=E9matique, coined in 1978 by Nora and Minc (1978), 'telematics' refer= s to services and infrastructures which link computer and digital media equipment over telecommunications links. Telematics are providing the technological foundations for rapid innovation in computer networking and voice, data, image and video communications. It is increasingly obvious that telematics are being applied across all the social and economic sectors and functions that combine to make up contemporary cities. It is also clear that telematics operate at all geographical scales - from within single buildings to transglobal networks. As William Melody argues, "information gathering, processing, storage and transmission over efficient telecommunications networks is the foundation on which developed economies will close the twentieth century" (Melody, 1986).

As part of this transformation, cities are being filled with what Judy Hillman calls "gigantic invisible cobwebs" of optic fibre, copper cable, microwave, wireless, microwave and satellite communications networks (Hillman, 1991; 1). The corridors between cities, whether they be made up of land, ocean or space, are in turn developing to house giant lattices of advanced telecommunications links. These connect the urban 'hubs' together into global electronic grids. Such grids now encircle the planet and provide the technological basis for the burgeoning flows of global telecommunications traffic : voice flows, faxes, data flows, image flows, TV and video signals. Instantaneous electronic flows now explode into the physical spaces of cities and buildings and now seem to underpin and cross-cut all elements of urban life.

Clearly, then, contemporary cities are not just dense physical agglomerations of buildings, the crossroads of transportation networks, or the main centres of economic, social and cultural life. The roles of cities as electronic hubs for telecommunications and telematics networks also needs to be considered. Urban areas are the dominant centres of demand for telecommunications and the nerve centres of the electronic grids that radiate from them. In fact, there tends to be a strong and synergistic connection between cities and these new infrastructure networks. Cities - the great physical artifacts built up by industrial civilisation - are now the powerhouses of communications who's traffic floods across global telecommunications networks -the largest technological systems ever devised by humans.

Many have argued that these shifts are part of a wider technological and economic 'revolution' which seems to be underway within advanced industrial societies and within which both the development of telecommunications and urban change hold central significance (see Miles and Robins, 1992). A wide and sometimes confusing range of analytical perspectives have developed that try to chart this transformation from an industrial, manufacturing-dominated society to one dominated by information, communications, symbols and services1. Because western societies are fundamentally urban societies - with between 60 and 90% of their populations living in towns and cities - cities are at the front line of this 'revolution'. Cities are the dominant population, communication, transaction and business concentrations of our society. This makes them the central arenas within which we would expect the effects of current telecommunications innovations to be felt. As we move towards an urban society based more and more on the rapid circulation of messages, signs and information via global electronic networks, it would therefore be hard to pinpoint a more important set of technology-society relations than those which link cities to telecommunications.

THE URBAN 'IMPACTS' OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

But what are the implications of these shifts ? What becomes of cities in an era dominated by electronic flows and networks ? What fate lies in store for our urban areas in the world where 'virtual corporations', 'virtual communities' and the abstract 'electronic territory' of 'cyberspace' are developing, based fundamentally on the use of telematics as space and time transcending technologies ?

The growing use and significance of telecommunications throws up many profound and fundamental questions which go to the heart of current debates about cities and urban life both today and in the future. For example, how do cities and urban life interrelate with the proliferation of electronic networks in all walks of life and at all geographical scales ? What happens to cities in the shift away from an economy based of the production and the circulation of material goods to one based more and more on the circulation and consumption of symbolic and 'informational' goods? (Lash and Urry, 1994 ). How are cities to sustain themselves economically given that more and more of their traditional economic advantages seem to be accessible, 'on-line', from virtually any location ? Are cities being affected physically by advances in telecommunications as many claim they were in previous eras by the railway and the automobile ? How does the movement from physical, local neighbourhoods to specialised social communities sustained over electronic networks - such as those on the Internet - affect the social life of cities ? How are social power relations and the traditional social struggles within cities reflected in the new era of telecommunications ? What is the relevance of telecommunications for burgeoning current debates about the 'environmental sustainability' of industrial cities ? And what do all these changes imply for the ways in which cities are planned, managed and governed ?

Such questions have recently stimulated much speculation and debate about the future of cities and the role of advances in telecommunications in urban change. Many commentators excitedly predict very radical changes in the nature of the city and urban life as advanced telecommunications, telematics and computers weave into every corner of urban life and so 'impact' on cities. Arguments that this will mean the dissolution of the cities and the emergence of decentralised networks of small scale communities or 'electronic cottages' are widespread. In fact they are so common that visions of the 'end' of cities seem to have almost reached the status of accepted orthodoxy within some elements of the popular media. Here, speculations abound surrounding the apparently revolutionary importance of the 'communications revolution', the 'information age', the 'information superhighway', 'cyberspace' or the 'virtual community' for the future of cities.

Unfortunately, however, these debates tend to be heavily clouded by hype and half-truth. They have generated much more heat than light. Such debates often tend also to be extremely simplistic, relying on assumed and unjustified assumptions about how telecommunications 'impact' on cities. Many accounts of city-telecommunications relations amount to little more than poorly-informed technological forecasts. Often, these are aimed at attracting media attention or generating sales and glamour for technological equipment. As a result, remarkably little real progress has been made in debates about telecommunications and cities. Amidst all the general hype about telecommunications and cities, remarkably little real empirical analysis of city-telecommunications relations exists.

This leaves the terrain open to extremes of optimism and pessimism. On the one hand, utopianists and futurologists herald telecommunications as the quick-fix solution to the social, environmental or political ills of the industrial city and industrial society more widely. On the other, dystopians or anti-utopians paint portraits of an increasingly polarised and depressing urban era dominated by global corporations who shape telematics and the new urban forces in their own image. Meanwhile, the increasing importance of telecommunications in cities has stimulated urban policy makers, managers and planners to begin to get involved in the development of telecommunications within their cities. But they, too, often remain confused about how their cities are really affected by developments in telecommunications. This, and the need to be seen to be successful means that they themselves can become prone to hyping up their urban telecommunications policies in the language of the quick 'technical fix'. The immaturity and neglect of urban telecommunications studies means that there has been a tendency to approach the whole subject without trying to justify the theory or methodologies adopted. In the excitement to address these neglected and important areas, Warren (1989) notes what he calls a 'candy store effect': "The topic [of telematics and urban development] creates a 'candy store' effect by providing license to deal with a range of phenomena. The result is an effort to cover far too much with no logic or theory offered to explain why some consequences are discussed and others are not and why some evidence is presented and other findings are not [...]. We are left with an analysis which lacks any theoretical base and an explicit methodology, gives more attention to marginal than primary effects of telematics, and, in many instances, is in conflict with a significant body of research" (Warren, 1989; 339).

THE NEGLECT OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS IN URBAN STUDIES

This 'candy store' effect is one symptom of the wider immaturity and neglect of telecommunications issues in both urban studies and urban planning and policy making. In many ways, cities can be thought of as giant engines of communication - physical, social and electronic (Pool, 1977; Meier, 1962). We might therefore expect technologies that allow communication over distances - that is tele communications - to be a central focus of disciplines which aim to understand the city and professions involved in urban planning and management. This is especially so given that telecommunications are absolutely central to current innovation and restructuring all of the activities that combine to make cities : in manufacturing, transportation, consumer and producer services ; in leisure, media and entertainment industries; in education, urban government, public services and urban utilities ; and in social and cultural life.

But, despite these two points, telecommunications remain far from being a central focus in urban studies or urban policy making. The subject of telecommunications and cities is a curiously neglected and extremely immature field of policy and research. Urban telecommunications studies remains perhaps the most underdeveloped field of urban studies. Telecommunications is also one of the least developed areas of urban policy (Mandlebaum, 1986). Recently Michael Batty argued that "interest and insights into the impact of communications patterns on the city with respect to information flow have [...] been virtually non-existent" (Batty, 1990a;248) and that current "understanding of the impacts of information technology on cities is still woefully inadequate" (Batty, 1990a;250).

Urban studies and policy remain remarkably blind to telecommunications issues. Compared to the enormous effort expended by urban analysts and policy makers on, say, urban transportation, urban telecommunications have received only a tiny amount of attention. Vast libraries and many professional bodies and dedicated journals now exist in the field of urban transport issues ; only a handful of books have directly looked at telecommunications and the city2 . Things have not greatly changed since Bertram Gross argued in 1973 that "urban planners seem most comfortable when dealing with urban problems in terms of transportation. Indeed, the most advanced techniques and the most "scientific" body of knowledge readily available to such decision makers are those of transport [...]. Urban planners [...] must become aware of the problems and possibilities of telecommunications" (Gross, 1973; 29). 'Urban analyst' or 'commentator' could easily replace 'planner' here. At most only about a dozen urban commentators in the Anglo-Saxon world have directly researched the relationships between telecommunications and urban development since Gross made that statement. Only rarely have these had much impact of the urban disciplines.

This relative neglect means that the field has been left open to other none urban specialists who have developed very influential speculations on how cities might relate to telecommunications. Importantly, though, this speculations have not been not based on any particular understanding or analysis of cities, per se. Instead, they have tended to start with rather simplistic and utopian approaches. Often, new technologies have been seen unproblematically as 'technical fix' style solutions for the perceived social and environmental inadequacies of the industrial city. Often, these ideas have been directly fuelled by interests in computing and telecommunications industries, keen to foster positive public images to new technologies as a stimulus to the growth of markets (Slack and Fejes, 1987). In 1973 Mark Hinshaw was one of the first to diagnose the link between the so-called 'utopianist' approaches that were then increasingly influential and the neglect of telecommunications by urban planning and urban studies. He remarked that: "many planners may well feel that communications technology will have little or no effect on urban development. Virtually any recognition at all of the relationships between urbanism and communications has come from academics and professionals outside the fields most directly involved in urban analysis and policy development. Most of the literature coming from such sources, however, treats communication and information-generating hardware as the means of solving most of the urban problems with which we are presently confronted " (Hinshaw 1973; 305. Emphasis added)

THE NEED FOR MORE SOPHISTICATED APPROACHES TO CITY-TELECOMMUNICATIONS RELATI= ONS

Whilst recent efforts to understand city-telecommunications relations have grown markedly (Brunn and Leinbach, 1991), it is still clear that urban telecommunications researchers and policy makers are still fighting an up-hill battle. Facing them are the overwhelming invisibility of the subject, the long legacy of neglect, and the powerful influence of the utopianists and futurists who have tended to fill the vacuum left by the neglect of telecommunications in urban studies. We believe that these problems are significant enough to challenge the paradigms underpinning urban studies and policy. They mean that - whilst they are increasingly numerous - references to telecommunications in both the policy and urban studies literature still tend to be general and speculative rather than specific or grounded in real analysis. Conceptual sophistication still tends to be rudimentary.

As with much social research on technology, literature on telecommunications and cities still tends to invoke what G=F6kalp calls "grand metaphors" of the nature of telecommunications-based change in cities (G=F6kalp, 1988). Invariably, modern telecommunications are seen as = a 'shock', 'wave' or 'revolution' impacting or about to impact upon cities. Technological determinism is common : current of future urban changes are often assumed to be determined by technological changes in some simple, linear cause and effect manner. The use of simple two-stage models to describe changes in cities and society is common. Cities are seen to be placed in a new 'age' in which telecommunications increasingly have a prime role in reshaping their development. Most usual here are notions that capitalism is in the midst of a transformation towards some 'information society' (Lyon, 1988) or 'Postindustrial society' (Bell, 1973), or that a more general 'communications revolution' (Williams, 1988) or 'third wave' (Toffler, 1981) is sweeping across urban society.

Most often, because of the general inability to analyse real change and the influence of futurology, analysis centres on speculating the 'impacts' of telecommunications on future cities in a general and vague way. Actual telecommunications-based developments in real contemporary cities are rarely analysed in detail. Even when they are, because they are so intangible and difficult to untangle, they themselves are often described using physical analogies with the more comprehensible elements of the industrial city. Thus the satellite ground station becomes the 'teleport ', the highly capable trunk network becomes the 'information super highway ' ; the computer conferencing system becomes the 'virtual community ' or the 'electronic neighbourhood ' ; the local community electronic bulletin board is labelled the 'Public Square'. The wide range of such metaphors and 'grand scenarios' which have now been offered up to describe the increasingly telecommunications-based city is shown in Figure 1.1. This lists the various telecommunications-related 'labels' and 'metaphors' that have been used to describe the contemporary city.

=46igure 1.1 here

A related tendency is to assume that the 'impacts' of telecommunications on cities are all the same. Telecommunications' 'impacts' on cities are seen to be relatively simple, homogeneous, linear and one-directional (G=F6kalp, 1988). The difficulty of undertaking empirical studies of such 'impacts' however, means that they tend to remain assumed rather than being tested empirically. Many commentators, for example, have predicted that, because they allow instantaneous communications, telecommunications across distance they will automatically undermine the spatial 'glue' that concentrates all large cities (see for example, Toffler, 1981; Martin, 1978). But usually these expectations remain just that : forecasts of some future urban state rather than empirical analyses of real change. In fact, evidence points to a wide range of experiences in city-telecommunications relations ; a complex set of new processes is leading to a new type of 'telegeography' (Staple, 1992). This is based on the degree to which nation states, regions, cities, rural areas, neighbourhoods and households are the foci of investment in telecommunications or are 'switched into' the new globally-driven dynamics of telematics-based change.

Such 'technological determinism' and forecasting does little to foster more sophisticated views of city-telecommunications relations in contemporary cities. In fact, what little evidence there is suggests that these approaches are far too simplistic. In this book we show how the effects of telecommunications on cities seem to be far more ambiguous and complex than many would have us believe. Rather than revolutionising cities by suddenly 'disinventing' them - spreading their contents equally across regions and nations - telecommunications and telematics are intimately involved in complex and diverse incremental urban changes across all areas of urban life. Their 'impacts' on cities are not all the same ; they are not even all in the same direction. In fact, when one starts to scrutinise the relationships between cities and telecommunications in more detail, a wide range of complex relationships emerge. These defy easy description and make the use of crude 'shock', 'wave' or 'revolution' labels extremely unhelpful. Telecommunications are intimately involved in many of the social, economic, environmental and geographical changes that make up the urban 'restructuring' process. Invariably, however, the precise nature of this involvement is subtle and difficult to disentangle.

Given the immaturity and neglect of urban telecommunications studies, this book is an attempt to develop a more sophisticated and considered approach to analysing the complex relations between cities and telecommunications. Adopting an interdisciplinary and international perspective, the book aims to help overcome the divorce which exists between the urban and telecommunications studies communities, so allowing an integrated and socio-technical understanding of tele-mediated urban change to be developed. In other words, we want to explore the complex interactions between technologies and the social, economic, cultural and political change underway in contemporary cities. We aim to avoid the pitfalls of the extremes of optimism and pessimism, of crude technological or social determinism, and of the simple recourse to some simple, all-explaining, 'grand metaphor'. Rather, we aim to ground our analysis in a comparative evaluation of the theoretical approaches available, to build on empirical evidence where it is available and to synthesise work from a wide variety of disciplines and sources on the full range of key issues which arise at the complex interface between cities and telecommunications. Critical social science is the perspective we aspire towards.

In the remaining chapters of the book, we trace how telecommunications are emerging to challenge the prevailing paradigms underpinning urban understanding and policy making. We explore the theoretical perspectives that can be adopted to explore telecommunications developments in cities. And then we go on to review some of the key aspects of city-telecommunications relations - economic, social, environmental, infrastructural, physical and governmental. These themes provide 'windows' through which we can start to explore the complex relations between cities and telecommunications. Although far from perfect, this broad cross-cutting perspective, we believe, allows us to usefully construct a more complete picture of these relations than has been built up before.

___________________________________________________________________________ Stephen Graham Centre for Urban Technology (CUT) Department of Town and Country Planning University of Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU U.K. Tel +44 (0)191 2226808 Fax +44(0)191 2228811 Email s.d.n.graham@ncl.ac.u= k

Details, information, & publications from the Centre for Urban Technology, as well as many links, are available at our World Wide Web site at: http://www.ncl.ac.uk/~ncut

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