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Ethnography of Information Systems
``` [The syllabus from a course entitled "Ethnography of Information Systems" that Geoff Bowker and Leigh Star teach at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Good references for anybody who wants to know what really happens when people use computers.]
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Ethnography of Information Systems - LIS 450EI Teachers: Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star (GSLIS) Tuesdays, 12-3 Spring Semester Speech and Hearing 119 Offices: Bowker Room 124 LIS Building 501 East Daniel MC-493 bowker@alexia.lis.uiuc.edu 3-2306 Star Room 123 LIS Building s-star1@uiuc.edu 4-3280 Motivation: Ethnographic research is becoming increasingly important at key points in the design, testing, and evaluation of new information systems. Since approximately 1980 a number of collaborations have arisen between ethnographers (fieldworkers: anthropologist s, ethnomethodologists, and qualitative sociologists of organizations and science) on the one hand, and designers, library and information scientists, engineers and computer scientists on the other. Early work focused on philosophical and epistemological divergence, with a critical edge and somewhat arms' length relationships (e.g. Suchman, 1988). Since the mid-1980s, especially in Britain and Scandinavia and increasingly in the US, full-fledged partnerships have grown. The nature of these partnerships differs with domain, national emphasis, and team skills. Yet all have in common the goal of analyzing the contingencies of information-based work practice as situated in particular times and places, and using that analysis to inform user-sensitive infor mation systems design. Students with a "bilingual" background in ethnography and information systems will be increasingly in demand in research and teaching settings which emphasize design of information systems, computer-supported cooperative work, organizational aspects of H CI, studies of the Internet and virtual communities, information-related policies, and the impact of advanced information systems, including on and in libraries and large text projects. There are also many emerging basic research opportunities on "virtua l culture", the culture of the Internet, cyberspace, etc. Course Content: In this course, we propose to survey the rapidly growing body of ethnographic analyses of information systems, to extend the basic principles of ethnographic research and to lead students in the development of projects modifying these principles for the emerging electronic environment. Students will be expected to carry out a series of fieldwork exercises (which may be integrated into a single project), and discuss notes and results in class. The projects may be chosen from a range of domains and sites: libraries, business and scientific organizations, computer design laboratories, social action projects such as PrairieNet, or computer centers. Part or all of the projects may be carried out on-line. Students may approach the course in one (or both) of two ways. First, if you are planning on doing ethnographic research of an information system as part of your doctoral thesis, then this semester can be used for locating, gaining access to, and undert aking a pilot project at your research site. You will be guided through the basic steps of ethnographic research in order to do this. Your final work will be a project description. Second, you may choose to do the series of exercises at different site s, and concentrate on the social and theoretical issues raised by the texts being studies. In this case you will be expected to turn in a theoretical essay discussing general issues in the social analysis of information systems. The classic principles of ethnographic research must be modified in order to take into account specific features of the emerging electronic information environment. In particular, new information systems are frequently highly distributed (requiring stud y in more than one work setting, and shared by many parts of a single organization), infrastructural (emerging in the workplace as background tools only) and are furthermore rapidly changing. The class will face this challenge together as a further metho dological dimension, especially of data collection. The basic analytic tools will rely on the grounded theory method of Glaser and Strauss, the interpretive interactionism of Denzin, and actor network theory from sociology of technology. Students who wish to pursue complementary analytic/theoretical tech niques such as ethnomethodology, conversation and video analysis are encouraged to do so. The course will be especially useful for advanced graduate students who wish to conduct dissertation research in this interdisciplinary area. Assessment: 40% Four exercises during the semester, each worth 10%. 60% Final theoretical paper or project description. Value of Course: This course will be especially useful for advanced graduate students wishing to pursue ethnographic dissertation research on the design, use or evaluation of complex information systems. Set Books and Readings: There are two set books: Susan Leigh Star (ed.), Cultures of Computing, Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. Edwin Hutchins, Cognition in the Wild, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995. Related Research Work Ethnographies of Design Some of the strongest work in ethnography of design is based in England, at Lancaster, Manchester, Oxford, Surrey, and Rank Xerox EUROPARC (Cambridge). The Lancaster Group (Hughes, Shapiro, and Rodden) are examining real-time software systems requireme nts for air traffic control, using ethnomethodology to inform the requirements analysis. Manchester's work is centered in the psychology department (Bowers, Lea, Church, and Lee) who use analysis of discourse and workplaces to study communication and des ign organizational communication systems. Oxford's Programming Requirements Group, headed by Goguen, is using video analysis and conversation analysis for requirements analysis in finance and medicine, and for very large-scale projects such as the develo pment of European-wide protocols for medical data transfer. The Surrey group (Heath and Luff) have examined workplace conversations and interaction in the London underground, which in turn is informing safety-critical systems improvements in computer-con trolled scheduling. EUROPARC's work (Anderson, Sharrock, Button, Harper, McKay) has focused on organizational communication and the feasibility of "smart badges" for video enhancement in workplaces. The work of Wagner at Vienna Technical University, Center for CSCW who has worked extensively with ethnographers on studies of nursing work and designed a number of systems for nurses, surgeons, and medical records. In the US, research work by ethnographers on technical design and engineering is growing, including the work of Henderson at Texas A&M on visual practices of CAD engineers; Forsythe at Pittsburgh who collaborates with Buchanan on medical expert systems; Downey on CAD engineers at Virginia Polytechnic; and the work of Kiesler (CMU) and Sproull (BU) on networks for scientists and industry. The Irvine Center for Research on Information Technologies and Organizations (Kling, King, Kraemer, Grudin, Ackerman) has a long tradition of use of ethnography to inform computerization in government and industry, and has lately been applying this to the development of CIM. Ira Monarch and his team at the Software Engineering Institute, CMU, have been developing conce ptual tools for combining ethnography, history and software engineering; they are interested in moving into the medical domain and exploring patient-centered records. Scacchi at USC has used a similar approach in the Software Factory. Gasser, also at USC in the Safety and Systems Management Institute, has applied ethnography to distributed AI and is currently working with an ethnographer on requirements analysis for manufacturing at a number of US firms. Partnerships between computer and social scientists, and ethnography of technology, are richly represented here at UIUC as well. To name a few: The Digital Library Initiative, Designing the Interspace, includes a substantial sociology team under the di rection of Ann Bishop. Chip Bruce and Jim Levin in the College of Education have investigated collaborative writing and learning technologies, as has the Center for Writing Studies. Patty Jones and Penny Sanderson, MIE, employ a multi-disciplinary appro ach including ethnography to real-time systems, in collaboration with Nosh Contractor and Barbara O'Keefe, Speech Communication. Participatory Design Initially developed in Scandinavia as a result of national legislation requiring workplace assessment of new technologies, participatory design (or co-design) represents a strong interdisciplinary set of studies of workplaces, originating with the work o f Nygaard. The work of B=BFdker and Markussen at Aarhus, Ehn (now at Lund), Pedersen at Interval Research, and Thoresen, Beck, Hanseth, Bratteteig and others at the Norwegian Computer Center have developed systems for graphic design, nursing support, and b anking, among other applications. This approach has been partially adopted by the Xerox PARC Workplace Project (Suchman, Trigg, Orr, Blomberg) and various projects at the Institute for Research on Learning in Palo Alto (Jordan, Linde, Clancey, Kahn) inve stigating workplace learning technologies and Internet tools for education and training. Collaboratories/CTCT/CSCW Five years ago NSF/CISE sponsored an initiative to support interdisciplinary development of "Coordination Theory and Collaboration Technology" (CTCT), called the Collaboratory initiative. A number of projects within it combined ethnography with the desi gn of collaboration systems. For example, Schatz' biology electronic library (Worm Community System) at Arizona and Illinois was developed in collaboration with Star and Chen and Ruhleder (organizational analysts). The Olsen's project at Michigan employ s fieldworkers in several cities under the direction of Finholt. Boland's "Spider" MIS system at Case Western uses ethnographic data. European interest in collaboration technology informed by ethnography has centered around cooperative writing too ls (the Sussex group); digital libraries (Turner's group at CERESI/CNRS, Meudon, France), manufacturing control and communication systems (Schmidt and the Ris=BF group in Denmark) and advanced email support (Lea, Bowers, and Church in the Manchester group). Some work in distributed artificial intelligence is also important here, especially in France (Poitou at Aix; Ferber at Paris VII) in the use of ethnographic data to model distributed work. In general, the growth of CSCW has incorporated ethnograp hy as an important partner. The work of Bannon (Limerick), Schmidt (Ris=BF), Robinson (SAGEFORCE, England), Rodden, Hughes and Shapiro (Lancaster), among others, is important here theoretically. Weekly Schedule and Readings Week 1 (1/16): General Introduction to the course Week 2 (1/23): Fundamentals of the ethnography of information systems (1) Readings: John Seely Brown and Paul Duguid, "Borderline Issues: Social and Material Aspects of Design" in Human-Computer Interaction, 9, 1994, 3-36. Rob Kling and Walt Scacchi, "The Web of Computing: Computer Technology as Social Organization" in Advances in Computers, 21, 1982, 1-90. Carl Hewitt, "Offices are Open Systems" in ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, 4 (1986): 271-287. Kjeld Schmidt and Liam Bannon, "Taking CSCW Seriously: Supporting Articulation Work," Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 1 (1992), 7-40. Recommended: Liam Bannon, "A Pilgrim's Progress: From Cognitive Science to Cooperative Design," AI and Society 4 (1990): 259-275. Hewitt, Carl. 1985. "The Challenge of Open Systems," BYTE (April), 223-242. Week 3 (1/30): Fundamentals of the ethnography of information systems (2) Readings: Joseph Goguen, " Requirements Engineering as the Reconciliation of social and Technical Issues," Pp. 165-199 in M. Jirotka and J. Goguen, eds. Requirements Engineering: Social and Technical Issues. London: Academic Press, 1994. Jonathan Grudin, "The Computer Reaches Out: The Historical Continuity of Interface Design," Technical Report, DAIMI PB -299, Computer Science Department, Aarhus University, Denmark, December 1989. Susan Leigh Star, "The Structure of Ill-Structured Solutions: Boundary Objects and Heterogeneous Distributed Problem Solving" in M. Huhns and L. Gasser (eds), Distributed Artificial Intelligence 2, Menlo Park, CA: Morgan Kauffman Nancy Leveson and Clark Turner, "An Investigation of the Therac-25 Accidents," IEEE Computer (July, 1993): 18-41. Gasser, Les. "The Integration of Computing and Routine Work," ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems 4 (1986): 205-225. Brooks, Frederick, "The Mythical Man-Month," Chapter Two of his, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975. Recommended: Kari Kuutti, "The Concept of Activity as a Basic Unit of Analysis for CSCW Research," European Conference on CSCW (ECSCW '90), Amsterdam. Kari Kuutti, "Identifying Potential CSCW Applications by Means of Activity Theory Concepts: A Case Example," Proceedings of CSCW 92 (NY: ACM): 233-240 Week 4 (2/6): Cognition in the Wild (1) Edwin Hutchins, Cognition in the Wild, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995. Chapters 1 and 2. Jean Lave, "The Values of Quantification," Pp. 88-111 in John Law, ed. Power, Action and Belief. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986. Recommended: Jean Lave, Cognition in Practice : Mind, Mathematics, and Culture in Everyday Life, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Week 5 (2/13): Cognition in the Wild (2) Edwin Hutchins, Cognition in the Wild, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995. Chapters 3 and 4. Charles Goodwin, "Professional Vision," American Anthropologist. 96(1994): 606-33. Eevi Beck, "Changing Documents/Documenting Changes: Using Computers For Collaborative Writing Over Distance," Pp. 53-68 in Cultures. Dianne Hagaman, "Connecting Cultures: Balinese Character and the Computer," Pp. 85-102 in Cultures. Week 6 (2/20): Cognition in the Wild (3) Edwin Hutchins, Cognition in the Wild, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995. Chapters 6-9. Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, "Situated Learning : Legitimate Peripheral Participation," Technical Report No. IRL90-0013, Institute for Research on Learning, Palo Alto, 1990. Robert Jones and Rand Spiro, "Contextualization, Cognitive Flexibility, and Hypertext: The Convergence of Interpretive Theory, Cognitive Psychology, and Advanced Information Technologies," Pp. 146-157 in Cultures. Week 7 (2/27): Medicine and classification) Yrj=9A Engestr=9Am, "When is a tool? Multiple Meanings of Artifacts in Human Activity" in Yrj=9A Engestr=9Am, Learning, Working and Imagining Helsinki: Orienta-Konsutit Og, 1990, 171-195. Diana Forsythe, "Blaming the User in Medical Informatics," Knowledge and Society: The Anthropology of Science and Technology 9 (1992): 95-111. Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan Leigh Star, "Knowledge and Infrastructure in International Information Management: Problems of Classification and Coding" Pp. 187-216 in Lisa Bud-Frierman (ed), Information Acumen, London: Routledge, 1994,. Ina Wagner, "Women's Voice: The Case of Nursing Information Systems" in AI and Society, 7(4), 1993. Marc Berg, "Formal Tools and Medical Practices: Getting Computer-Based Decision Techniques to Work" in Geoffrey C. Bowker, Susan Leigh Star, Bill Turner and Les Gasser (eds), Social Science, Technical Systems, and Cooperative Work, Princeton, NJ: L .J. Erlbaum, forthcoming 1996. Bonnie Kaplan, "Objectification and Negotiation in Interpreting Clinical Images: Implications for Computer-Based Patient Records," Artificial Intelligence in Medicine 7 (1995): 439-454. Recommended: Bonnie Kaplan, "Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Information Systems Research: A Case Study," MIS Quarterly 12 (1988): 571-56. Week 8 (3/5): Standards, accounting and information systems Richard Boland and Ulrike Schultz, "From Work to Activity: Technology and the Narrative of Progress," Pp. 308-324 in Wanda Orlikowski et al (eds), Information Technology and Changes in Organizational Work, Proceedings of the IFIP WG8.2 Working Co nference. London: Chapman and Hall, 1995. Ole Hanseth and Eric Monteiro, "Social Shaping of Information Infrastructure: On Being Specific About the Technology" Pp. 325-343 in Wanda Orlikowski et al (eds), Information Technology and Changes in Organizational Work, Proceedings of the IFIP W G8.2 Working Conference. London: Chapman and Hall, 1995. Susan Leigh Star, "The Politics of Formal Representations: Wizards, Gurus, and Organizational Complexity," Pp. 88-118 in Susan Leigh Star, ed. Ecologies of Knowledge: Work and Politics in Science and Technology. Albany: SUNY Press. Rogers Hall and Reed Stevens, "Making Space: A Comparison of Mathematical Work in School and Professional Design Practices," Pp. 118-145 in Cultures. Week 9 (3/19): Participatory design and workplaces Readings: Susanne B=BFdker and Ellen Christiansen, "Scenarios as Springboards in the Design of CSCW" in Geoffrey C. Bowker, Susan Leigh Star, Bill Turner and Les Gasser (eds), Social Science, Technical Systems, and Cooperative Work, Princeton, NJ: L.J. Erlbaum , forthcoming 1996. Louis Bucciarelli, "An Ethnographic Perspective on Engineering Design," Design Studies 9 (1988): 159-168. Dave Randall, John Hughes and Dan Shapiro, "Steps towards a Partnership: Ethnography and System Design," Pp. 241-258 in M. Jirotka and J. Goguen, eds. Requirements Engineering: Social and Technical Issues. London: Academic Press, 1994. Lucy Suchman, "Making Work Visible," Communications of the ACM 38 (September 1995): 56-64. Recommended: Lucy Suchman, Plans and Situated Actions : the Problem of Human-Machine Communication, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Special issue of Communications of the ACM on participatory design, June, 1993. Mike Hales, "Information systems strategy, a cultural borderland, some monstrous behaviour, " Pp. 103-117. Week 10 (3/26): Libraries, Information Work and CSCW Bonnie Nardi and Vicki O'Day, "Intelligent Agents: What We Learned at the Library," Manuscript courtesy of author, Apple Computer Corporation, Advanced Technology Group, 1995, 44pp. Judith Weedman, "The Structure of Incentive: Design and Client Roles in Application-Oriented Research", Paper presented at ASIS, Chicago, 1995. William L. Anderson and William Crocca, "Engineering Practice and Codevelopment of Produce Prototypes," Communications of the ACM 36 (1993): 49-56. Randi Markussen, "Constructing Easiness-Historical Perspectives on Work, Computerization, And Women," Pp. 158-180 in Cultures. Week 11 (4/2): Libraries - User Studies General overview with discussion papers of Allerton '95 Conference: http://edfu.lis.uiuc.edu/allerton/95/ Marcia Bates, Where should the person stop and the information search interface start? Information Processing & Management, 26, 575-591, 1990. Marcia Bates, The Design of Browsing And Berrypicking Techniques For The Online Search Interface. Online Review, 13, 407-424, 1989. Twidale, Michael, "How to Study and Design for Collaborative Browsing in the Digital Library, Discussion Document for: How We Do User-Centered Design and Evaluation of Digital Libraries: A Methodological Forum, 37th Allerton Institute, Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, October 29-31, 1995. David Levy and Catherine Marshall, "Washington's White Horse? A Look at Assumptions Underlying Digital Libraries," Paper presented at Digital Libraries '94. Week 12 (4/9): Information Centers and Electronic Communities Readings: Wanda Orlikowski and JoAnne Yates, "Genre Repertoire: The Structuring of Communicative Practices in Organizations," Administrative Science Quarterly 39 (1994): 541-574. Sherry Turkle, "Constructions and Reconstructions of Self in Virtual Reality: Playing in the MUDs," Mind, Culture and Activity 1 (1994): 158-17. Karen Ruhleder, "`Pulling down' books vs. `pulling up' files: textual databanks and the changing culture of classical scholarship," Pp. 181-195 in Cultures. Nancy Baym, "From Practice to Culture on Usenet ," Pp. 29-52 in Cultures. Margaret Riel, "Cross-classroom Collaboration in Global Learning Circles," Pp. 219-242 in Cultures. Allucquere Rosanne Stone, "Sex and Death among the Disembodied: VR, Cyberspace, and The Nature Of Academic Discourse," Pp. 243-155 in Cultures. Paul Edwards, "Cyberpunks in Cyberspace: The Politics of Subjectivity in the Computer Age," PP. 69-84 in Cultures. Recommended: JoAnne Yates and Wanda Orlikowski, "Genres of Organizational Communication: A Structurational Approach to Studying Communication and Media," Academy of Management Review 17 (1992): 299-326. Week 13 (4/16): Using visual material in the ethnography of information systems Harper, Doug. (1979) "Life on the Road," Pp. 25-42 in Jon Wagner, ed. Images of Information: Still Photography in the Social Sciences, Beverly Hills: Sage. Kathryn Henderson, "The Visual Culture of Engineers," Pp. 196-218 in Cultures. Medical imaging articles, to be announced. 3rd International Conference on Electronic Library and Visual Information Research: http://ford.dmu.ac.uk/elvira/elvira3.html Week 14 (4/23): Student presentations Week 15 (4/30): Student presentations Conclusion and future work. Exercises Detailed instructions will be covered in class. 1. Due Date: 30 January Carry out a passive observation at a computer laboratory or kiosk. Locate a terminal where several people are working together and observe and comment on their patterns of interaction and their use of the technology (turn taking in mouse control etc). W hat design implications emerge? 2. Due Date: 20 February Carry out an analysis of a set of videotapes depicting safety work in a nuclear power plant. Look particularly for the performance of social computations, in Hutchin's sense of the term. 3. Due Date: 26 March Carry out a series of user interviews and produce a set of requirements for an upgrade to the system you are interviewing users about. 4. Due Date: 9 April Observe and analyze the development of an electronic community. Any kind of distributed computing is valid here - you might think of a Usenet group or a MUD, but also the distribution co-ordination of work at a site you are studying. Analyze kinds of so cial interactions that occur, paying particular attention to technical mediation. 5. Due Date: 20 May Final paper - either your project description or theoretical paper, as negotiated with the instructors. Supplemental Bibliography: Jeanette Blomberg, Lucy Suchman and Randy Trigg, "Notes on the Work-Oriented Design Project in Three Voices", In Bowker, Geoffrey, Susan Leigh Star, William Turner, and Les Gasser, eds. (1993) Beyond the Great Divide: Socio-Technical Systems and Coop erative Work. Proceedings of a Symposium, Centre CNRS, Paris, March. Bowers, John. (1992) "The Politics of Formalism", In Martin Lea, ed. In Contexts of Computer Mediated Communications. Hassocks: Harvester/Wheatsheaf. Bowker, Geoffrey. (In press) "Information Mythology and Infrastructure," In L. Bud, ed. Information Acumen: the Understanding and Use of Knowledge in Modern Business. London: Routledge. Bowker, Geoffrey. (1994) Science on the Run: information management and industrial geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920-1940. MIT Press Bowker, Geoffrey, Susan Leigh Star, William Turner, and Les Gasser, eds. (1993) Beyond the Great Divide: Socio-Technical Systems and Cooperative Work. Proceedings of a Symposium, Centre CNRS, Paris, March. (In preparation as an edited volume, su bmitted to MIT Press.) Ehn, P., & Kyng, M. (1987) "The Collective Resource Approach to Systems Design." Pp. 17-58 in G. Bjerknes, P. Ehn, & M. Kyng (Eds.), Computers and democracy - a Scandinavian challenge. Aldershot, UK: Avebury. Greenbaum, J. & Kyng, M. (Eds.) (1991) Design at Work.: Cooperative Design of Computer Systems. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Grudin, J. (1991) "Interactive Systems: Bridging the Gaps between Developers and Users." IEEE Computer, (April), 59-69. Latour, Bruno and Steve Woolgar. (1979) Laboratory Life. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. Lave, Jean and Etienne Wenger. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Myers, Greg, (1991a) "Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project," Social Studies of Science, 21: 37-51. National Research Council, Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, (1993) National Collaboratories: Applying Information Technology for Scientific Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Orr, J. (1990) "Sharing knowledge, celebrating identity: War stories and community memory in a service culture," pp. 169-189 in Middleton, D.S. and D. Edwards, eds. Collective Remembering: Memory in Society. London: SAGE. Ruhleder, Karen and John King, (1991) "Computer Support for Work Across Space, Time and Social Worlds," Journal of Organizational Computing, 1: 341-355. Schmidt, Kjeld and Mike Robinson. (1993) Developing CSCW Systems: Design Concepts EC COST11 Report of CoTech WG4. Riso National Laboratory, Cognitive Systems Group, Denmark. Star, Susan Leigh. (1991b) "Invisible Work and Silenced Dialogues in Representing Knowledge" Pp. 81-92 in Women, Work and Computerization.: Understanding and Overcoming Bias in Work and Education. Ed. I.V. Eriksson, B.A. Kitchenham, and K.G. Tijd ens. Amsterdam: North Holland. Star, Susan Leigh. (1993) "Cooperation without Consensus in Scientific Problem Solving: Dynamics of Closure in Open Systems," Pp. 93-105 in Steve Easterbrook, ed. CSCW: COOPERATION or CONFLICT? London: Springer-Verlag. Star, Susan Leigh. (1989a) Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Star, Susan Leigh. (1983) "Simplification in Scientific Work: An Example from Neuroscience Research," Social Studies of Science, 13: 205-228. Star, Susan Leigh and E.M.Gerson (1986) "Analyzing Due Process in the Workplace," ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, 4: 257-270. Taylor, Jeanie, Cheris Kramarae and Maureen Ebben. Women, Information Technology and Scholarship. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1993. Woolgar, S. (1985) "Why Not a Sociology of Machines? The Case of Sociology and Artificial Intelligence." Sociology. Vol. 19 No. 4 pp. 557-572. ```
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